Religious conversion and migration activities of the Mong people in Vietnam

DR. LE TAM DAC
Institute of Religion and Beliefs,
Ho Chi Minh National Academy of Politics

1. Religious transformation of the Mong people in Vietnam

From the mountains of Guizhou, Hunan, and Yunnan provinces (China), the Mong people migrated to Vietnam and other Southeast Asian countries, mainly in 3 phases, stretching from the end of the eighteenth century to the beginning of the twentieth century. In Vietnam, initially, the Mong people lived mainly in the Vietnam - China border provinces such as Lai Chau, Dien Bien, Lao Cai, Ha Giang, Cao Bang, and Lang Son and Vietnam - Laos border provinces such as Son La, Thanh Hoa, and Nghe An. Over the past 30 years, following migration trends, the Mong people have lived in many localities across the country, especially in the Central Highlands region. In 2009, the Mong population was 1,068,189, ranked eighth among ethnic groups in Vietnam (after the Kinh, Tay, Thai, Muong, Khmer, Hoa, Nung)⁽¹⁾. By 2019, the Mong population was 1,393,547, ranked fifth among the ethnic groups in our country (after the Kinh, Tay, Thai, and Muong groups)⁽²⁾.

In terms of spiritual life, with a polytheistic and animistic religious consciousness, the Mong people worship many gods, called “ghosts”, mainly belonging to two groups, “ancestral ghosts” (human gods) and “natural ghosts” (natural gods). Worship of ancestral gods within the family is the most important ritual in the traditional beliefs of the Mong people, shown primarily though funerals (grandparents, parents) and the worship ceremonies for “cow ghosts” and “pig ghosts”, as well as new year rituals, weddings, naming babies, naming adults, new houses, new rice, calling spirits, releasing souls, chasing ghosts, etc., worshiping the natural spirit of the Mong people is conducted at the family level (worship ceremonies of the house god, the door god, the kitchen god, etc.,) and at the village level (the worship ceremony of the mountain gods, the forest gods, the rover gods, the stream gods, etc.,)⁽³⁾.

However, from the end of the nineteenth century to the beginning of the twentieth century, Christianity with two main branches: Catholicism and Protestantism, spread to the Mong people in southern China, North Vietnam, and some other Southeast Asian countries such as Laos and Thailand. In the early stages, Catholic and Protestant religions spread among the Mong people encountered many difficulties due to both internal and external causes, especially cultural conflicts between the two monotheistic religions and the polytheistic beliefs of the Mong people in ancestor and traditional gods worship.

In China, in 1886, two groups of missionaries from the Chinese domestic missionary delegation spread Protestantism to the Mong Hoa and Black Mong people in the east of Guizhou province. However, the evangelization of the Protestantism among the Black Mong people in the east of Guizhou province was unsuccessful, with even one missionary and the first converted black Mong person being killed. Meanwhile, the promulgation of Protestantism among the Mong Hoa community in the northeast of Yunnan province, the west of Guizhou province, and the south of Sichuan province was more successful with the role of the missionaries of the Unified Evangelization Mission. In 1920, in the northwest of Guizhou province, northeast of Yunnan province, and southern Sichuan province, the Chinese domestic mission was established with 9 mission centers, while the Unified Evangelization Mission was established with more than 30 mission centers. Also, from the end of the nineteenth century, Christianity entered the Mong communities in Thailand and Laos. This activity was definitely successful at the initial stage as a part of the Mong people in these two countries turned to Protestantism⁽⁴⁾.

In Vietnam, the religious transformation of the Mong people took place in the 1920s with Ma A Thong, Lo A Tinh, and 05 Mong families in Sa Pa, Lao Cai Province, following the Catholicism, significantly influenced by Father François Marie Savina and the support of some Mong clergies in Yunnan province, China. From Sa Pa, Missionary F.M. Savina actively carried on missionary work to the Mong people in Tram Tau, and Nghia Lo province (now Yen Bai province). Despite some unfavorable conditions, the number of Mong people increased slightly over the years. In 2015, 1.4% of the Mong population in Vietnam were Catholics⁽⁵⁾, mainly in the northern mountainous provinces such as Yen Bai, Lao Cai, Son La, Dien Bien, etc. By 2019, in the northern mountainous region, the number of Mong ethnic minorities practicing Catholicism was 9,765, the highest number among the ethnic minorities (such as Nung, Dao, San Chay, and so on.) participating in this religion in the area⁽⁶⁾.

After Catholicism, Protestantism was the next religious conversion among the Mong people in Vietnam. Although being officially present in our country since 1911, and quickly influencing a few ethnic minorities in the South Central region in the 1920s, and in the Central Highlands region in the 1930s, as well as in the northern mountainous region in the 1940s, it was not until the late 1980s that Protestantism spread to the Mong in the northern mountains through the Far East Broadcasting Company (FEBC) based in Manila, Philippines. The broadcast propagated the belief of “golden propaganda” (Vuong Chu, Mong King) is the Savior, God and Jesus are the sons of Vang Chu. After a short time studying and seeking religious activities at a Catholic Church in Tram Tau district (Yen Bai province), in 1992, with explanations and instructions from the priests, the above mentioned Mong group officially converted to Protestantism, initially joining the Vietnam Protestant Church (Northern Region). In 2015, 18.3% of Mong people in Vietnam were Protestant⁽⁷⁾, concentrated in the northern mountainous region and the Central Highlands region. By 2019, in the northern mountainous region, the number of Mong ethnic people following Protestantism was 233,619, the highest among the ethnic minorities (such as Dao, San Chi, Thai, etc.) participating in this religion in the area. In addition, there were about 40,000 Mong people following Protestantism who migrated to the Central Highlands⁽⁸⁾.

In addition to Catholicism and Protestantism, from the early 1990s, a part of the Mong people in the northern mountainous region also followed some new religious phenomena formed in the country like Duong Van Minh, or transmitted from abroad like Gie Sua, Spinster Do. The Duong Van Minh sect, officially known as “The belief of Duong Van Minh is Unique and Eternal”, formed in 2000 on the basis of separation from the Vang Chu in Tuyen Quang province, then spread to the provinces of Cao Bang, Tuyen Quang, Ha Giang, Bac Can, Thai Nguyen, and Lao Cai. The sect of Gie Sua was founded by David Her (Ho Cha Sung) in 2015 in the US, the sect of Aunt Do (also known as the Church of God Loved Ss) was established by Vu Thi Do in 2016 in the US, entering the Mong community in many northern mountainous provinces, especially Lai Chau and Dien Bien via the Internet⁽⁹⁾.

It can be seen that the religious conversion of the Mong people in Vietnam in the last 100 years is associated with two major societal upheavals. The first social upheaval took place from the end of the nineteenth century to the beginning of the twentieth century associated with the French colonial invasion of our country. The second social upheaval took place from the late 20th century to the beginning of the 21st century during Vietnam’s implementation of the renovation policy, industrialization, modernization, and extensive international integration. Notably, the religious transformation of the Mong people in Vietnam, as well as in China, Laos, and Thailand, are related to Catholicism, Protestantism, and new religious phenomena derived from Christianity. Missionaries effectively exploited the similarities in the traditional Mong beliefs about the Savior and salvation theory with those in Christianity.

2. Migration activities of Mong people in Vietnam

Due to many historical objective and subjective reasons, migration is a characteristic of the Mong people. The Mong people initially settled in several provinces along, the Vietnam - China and Vietnam - Laos borders. However, since the late 1980s, the Mong migration has undergone significant and complex changes in 3 forms: Internal migration (between Northern mountainous provinces),

inter-regional migration (from the Northern mountainous region to the Central Highlands region), Migration across the border (from Vietnam to China, Laos, Thailand, Myanmar, and so on). If narrowed down by spatial criteria, Mong migration activities can be categorized into two forms: “Domestic migration”/ “Internal migration” and “International migration”/ “External migration”.

Regarding internal migration, a typical example is the movement of the Mong from various northern mountainous provinces to Muong Nhe and Nam Po districts in Dien Bien province. In Nam Po district, the primary destination of Mong migrants are Nam Nhung and Phin Ho communes, mainly from 1986 to 1996. These migrant’s originated from Sin Chai commune, Tua Chua district, Dien Bien province. In addition to the small number of migrants in this province, the Mong people migrated to Nam Po district, mostly coming from Xin Man district and Quang Binh district (Ha Giang province), Bao Yen district (Lao Cai province).

In Muong Nhe district, the destination of the Mong migrants concentrated in Nam Ke and Leng Su Sin communes, from 1997 to 2010. The Mong migrants’ origins were various places such as Lai Chau province (including Dien Bien before 2003), as Tam Duong, Phong Tho, Sin Ho, Tan Uyen and Dien Bien Dong, Lao Cai Province (Sa Pa district) and Son La (Soc Cop, Thuan Chau, Song Ma, Mai Son)⁽¹⁰⁾.

Regarding inter -regional migration, many Mong people from the northern mountainous region and the North Central region moved to the Central Highlands region, mainly from 1986 to 2013, divided into 3 stages from 1986-1991, 1992-2001 and 2002-2013. Since 2014, the number of Mong migrants into the Central Highlands region has decreased significantly, almost ceasing by 2017.

After initial exploration in the early stage with 2,719 people entering the provinces of Dac Lak and Dak Nong, the wave of the Mong people migrating into the Central Highlands, in the next two phases varied in each stage and locality. Specifically, in the period 1992-2001, out of 23,579 Mong people who migrated to the Central Highlands, 14,143 people moved to Dak Nong province (accounting for nearly 60%). In the period 2002-2013, out of 33,365 Mong people who migrated to the Central Highlands, 19,670 people moved to Dak Lak province (accounting for nearly 59%). In 2013, the whole Central Highlands had 59,240 Mong people who migrated to the region, mostly in Dak Lak province (29,375 people) and Dak Nong province (23,814 people), followed by the two provinces of Lam Dong (3,832 people) and Gia Lai (2,219 people)⁽¹¹⁾.

The migrants to the Central Highlands were from almost all Mong-inhabited areas in the northern mountains, including: Ha Giang province (districts of Xin Man, Meo Vac, Vi Xuyen, Bac Quang, Hoang Su Phi, Dong Van), Cao Bang Province (Nguyen Binh, Bao Lac and Thach An districts), Bac Kan province (districts of Cho Don, Na Ri, Ba Be), Lao Cai province (Bac Ha, Bao Yen, Bao Thang, Van Ban and Sa Pa districts), Lai Chau province (Muong Te, Muong Lay, Sin Ho districts), Dien Bien province (Tua Chua districts, Tuan Giao), Son La province (Muong La and Phu Yen districts), Tuyen Quang province (districts of Na Hang, Yen Son, Chiem Hoa, Ham Yen), Lang Son province (Bac Son district), Yen Bai province (Van Chan and Tram Tau districts), Thanh Hoa province (Muong Lat and Quan Hoa districts), Nghe An province (Ky Son district). In particular, as of 2013, the three Northern mountainous provinces that had the greatest number of Mong people migrating freely into the Central Highlands region were Lao Cai (10,435 people, accounting for 21.07%), Ha Giang (8,476 people, accounting for 17.11%), and Cao Bang (8,230 people, accounting for 16.61%)⁽¹²⁾.

Regarding cross-border migration, this activity is quite common among Mong people in many mountainous provinces in the North, Lai Chau, Dien Bien, Son La, Hoa Binh, Lao Cai, Yen Bai, Thanh Hoa, Nghe An. In the period 1986-2010, the Mong people in the above localities, especially the provinces of Nghe An, Lai Chau, Son La, Dien Bien and Lao Cai mainly migrated to Laos⁽¹³⁾. In the period of 2011-2015, the Mong people in the Northern mountainous region also migrated to China, Thailand, and Myanmar. Dien Bien province is a typical example, with 239 Mong people migrating to China, 117 Mong people to Laos, 72 Mong people migrating to Thailand and 48 Mong people to Myanmar. These figures are initial estimates, and are likely much lower than the actual migration numbers from this locality if considering the livelihood needs and the co-relations⁽¹⁴⁾.

3. The issue arising from the religious transformation and migration activities of the Mong people in Vietnam

The religious conversion of the Mong community in Vietnam is clearly intertwined with their migration activities. The complex intertwining of these two issues is due to various reasons, but primarily three factors: economic, religious, and political. Apart from economic factors, which is relatively straightforward in certain cases, the religious conversions and migration activities of the Mong people in our country are quite closely associated with the religious and political factors.

The economic reasons for the Mong people migrating domestically as well as crossing the border are quite clear in early stages of this activity, mainly from the mid-80s to the mid-90s of the twentieth century. Specifically, in the 1980s, implementing the Party and the State’s guidelines and policies on building a new economic zone and re-distributing population, about 200 Mong people from Hoang Lien Son province (which was divided into Lao Cai and Yen Bai provinces in 1991) along with nearly 1 million people from various ethnic minority groups and many regions, moved to settle in the Central Highlands region^{( 15)}. Realizing that the Central Highlands are sparsely populated, fertile land, conducive to agricultural economic development and improving material life through the relationship with the first fellow ethnic groups, from 1986 to 1991, a small part of the Mong people from the northern mountainous region freely migrated to the Central Highlands region, mainly Dak Lak province (which was divided into Dak Lak and Dak Nong provinces in 2003). At that time, this area was fertile, the forests were rich in precious wood, and the area was sparsely populated⁽¹⁶⁾. For the Mong people in the Northern mountainous region, migrating to Laos and China during the period of 1986-2010, was also mainly thanks to stable jobs, increased income, and to ensure a better life⁽¹⁷⁾.

However, from the last decade of the twentieth century to the beginning of the 21^st century, besides the economic factors, the Mong’s migration activities have become closely linked to two religious and political factors. Apart from a portion of traditional and Catholic beliefs, most of the Mong migrations are related to Protestantism and some new religious phenomena originating from Christianity. To attract and lure in followers, the missionaries actively propagated superstitions, and incited extremist nationalism, autonomous separatism including the proclamation welcoming a king, establishing the “Mong Kingdom”, and “Mong State”.

It is important to note and emphasize that one of the important reasons that many of the Mong people follow Protestantism and the new religious phenomena derived from Christianity comes from the phenomenon of the welcoming and proclaiming of the king, a form of “salvation movement” arising from spiritual element, and originating from the depth of history, specifically the psychology of the Mong people. The concept of “Vang Chu”/ “Vang Tru” (Vua Chu/ Vuong Chu), is a belief of the Mong people in which Mong King descends to earth, from which the mentality of welcoming and proclaiming the king is derived. This paranoid belief of the Mong people appeared around the nineteenth century, initially in the southern region of China, stemming from the complex and difficult circumstances, interwoven with nostalgia for when Mong people had prosperous Tam Mieu state before being destroyed by the Han Dynasty. The wish that the Mong people was to escape weakness, loneliness, inferiority and suppression, and that there will be a happier and better life when their legendary savior king appears The movement to proclaim and welcome the king started with a “prophet” (priest or layperson) suddenly saying that the Mong king was about to appear to help the Mong people to change their lives for the better.

In the late 1980s and early 1990s, several instances of Mong people declaring kingships emerged in the provinces of Dien Bien, Lao Cai, Lai Chau, Son La, Ha Giang, Tuyen Quang, etc. In these localities, the “prophets” of the Mong people propagandized that there would be heavy rain and wind, the water would rise to flood over everywhere, then Mong King would appear, so those who wanted to be saved had to participate in the king-welcoming ceremony. Many Mong people quit their jobs and sold all their properties to welcome the king. Thoroughly exploiting the king welcoming psychology, the extremist group within Protestantism and the new religious phenomena such as Duong Van Minh, the Aunt Do, Gie Sua, along with hostile forces through the Mong people living abroad, reactionary websites, radio stations in the United States and in Southeast Asia like the Philippines have mobilized and persuaded a part of the Mong people to change religion, inciting autonomous separatism, extremist nationalism, sabotaged the policies of great national unity(18), leading to the domestic migration activities of the Mong people from the northern mountainous localities to Dien Bien province, from the northern mountainous region to the Central Highlands, as well as cross-border migration from the northern mountainous provinces to China, Laos, Thailand, Myanmar with the intention to establish the “Mong Kingdom”/ the “State of Tam Mieu”.

In March 2000, some Mong people sent an “ultimatum” to the government of Lai Chau province demanding to divide the territory, taking the land from the sky gate (Muong Lay district) to the north for Vang Chu followers. In May 2011, 7,000 Mong people from the provinces of Ha Giang, Tuyen Quang, Son La, Lao Cai, Lai Chau, Dak Lak, and Dak Nong were drawn in by hostile forces in Huoi Khon village, Nam Ke commune, Muong Nhe district, Dien Bien province to welcome the king and set up “Mong kingdom”. 300 canvas tents were erected for each Mong household to live in, barriers were established at each end of Huoi Khon village with many people assigned to guard, causing the security and order situation in the area to become more complicated⁽¹⁹⁾.

Although the case in Huoi Khon village, Nam Ke commune, Muong Nhe district, Dien Bien province was strictly handled by the Government in accordance with the law, hostile forces continue to propagate and incite separatism and extremist nationalism among a part of the Mong ethnic people in the northern mountainous region, especially the groups that converted to Protestantism and new religious phenomena originating from Christianity. In February 2020, a part of the Mong people in Lai Chau province, especially the two hamlets of Ngai Pho and Giang Ly Cha, Ta Tong commune, Muong Te district, were stimulated by hostile forces to establish the “Mong kingdom”/ “The State of Tam Mieu”, taking the Protestantism as the national religion⁽²⁰⁾.

Remarkably, a part of the Mong people in the Northern mountainous region, especially the provinces of Lai Chau, Dien Bien, Son La, and Nghe An, have been continuously deceived by hostile forces over the past 30 years to cross the border to Laos, then to Thailand and Myanmar with promises to be taken to the United States and Western countries to have a happy and wealthy life. But in fact, the majority of Mong people end up residing long-term in refugee camps in Thailand and Myanmar under challenging and deprived living conditions. These images exploited by hostile forces to accuse Vietnam of violating human rights and religious freedoms, especially those of ethnic minorities to believe in small-group religious organizations.

Recently, the religious conversion and migration activities of the Mong people have been resolved by the authorities at all levels, helping people to stabilize their lives and improve their material and spiritual life. However, in the context where these two aforementioned activities are still present complex issues related to the country’s socio-political environment. This is one of the excuses for the United States to accuse Vietnam of violating human rights and religious freedom. Consequently, our country was added to the “List of countries that need special monitoring for religious freedom” since 2022.

In addition to ensuring the freedom of religion and the freedom of residence of the people, strict handling of activities that exploit religion to create social instability, oppose the revolution, and infringe national security is necessary for the governments at all levels. Particularly in the northern mountainous provinces bordering Vietnam - Laos and Vietnam - China, it is crucial to focus more on propaganda programs and the policies of the Party and the State. Educating the Mong people, especially those who have converted religions, about patriotism and civic consciousness is vital to make them understand that Vietnam is their country. Joining hands to build an equitable, democratic, civilized, and rich country is the common responsibility of all Vietnamese people, regardless of whether they belong to the ethnic majority or ethnic minority groups. This work is essential to deny hostile forces opportunities to take advantage of ethnic and religious issues to incite extremist nationalism, autonomous separatism, sabotaged the socialist regime and the policies of the great unity bloc of the entire nation.

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Received: July 7, 2023; Revised: July 1, 2023; Approved for publication: July 24, 2023.

Endnotes:

(1) General Statistics Office; Table 5, Total results, date storage of general census of population and housing 2009, http://portal.thongke.gov.vn.

(2) The Steering Committee for General census of population and housing: The results of General census of population and housing at 0 o’clock on April 1, 2019, Statistical Publishing House, Hanoi, 2019, p.53.

(3) See: Vuong Duy Quang: Hmong’s spiritual culture in Vietnam: traditional and present, Publishing House of Information and Culture and Culture Institute, Hanoi, 2005, p.92-132.

(4) See: Vuong Duy Quang: Hmong’s spiritual culture in Vietnam: traditional and present, ibid, p.222-224; Tran Thi Hong Yen (Editor): Changes in culture and society of the Northern mountainous ethnic minority community (from 2005 to present), Social Science Publishing House, Hanoi, 2018, p.34-36.

(5), (6), (7) General Statistics Office: The main survey results of information collection about the socio-economic situation of 53 ethnic minorities in 2015, cited: Hoang Thi Lan (Editor): Religious and belief life in ethnic minority areas in Vietnam today, Political theory Publishing House, Hanoi, 2021, p.88, 78-79, 88.

(8) Nguyen Thanh Xuan: Protestantism in the world and in Vietnam, Religious Publishing House, Hanoi, 2019, p.446.

(9), (20) View: Hoang Thi Lan (Editor): Religious life, ethnic minority beliefs in Vietnam today, ibid, p.136-142, 216.

(10), (16) See: Tran Thi Hong Yen (editor): The cultural and social changes of the Northern mountainous ethnic minority community (from 2005 to the present), Ibid, p.66-74, 74.

(11), (12), (15) Cited: Doan Duc Phuong: The religious life of the Protestant Mong people in Dak Lak from 1986 to the present, the doctoral thesis of religion, the Academy of Social Sciences, Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences, Hanoi, 2018, p.29-31, 29, 26.

(13) See: Dau Tuan Nam: Hmong’s migration from renewal up to now, National Political Publishing House, Hanoi, 2013, p.50-53.

(14), (17) See: Dau Tuan Nam, Vu Hai Van, Nguyen Thi Thom (co-editor): Managing cross-border migration activities of ethnic minorities in Dien Bien province today, Political theory Publishing House, Hanoi, 2018, p.26-27, 54-56.

(18) See: Le Dinh Loi: Protestantism among the Mong ethnic people in Lao Cai province today, Master’s thesis in philosophy, religious major, Ho Chi Minh National Academy of Politics, Hanoi, 2012, p.59; Dau Tuan Nam, Vu Hai Van and Nguyen Thi Nhuoi (co-editor): Managing cross-border migration activities of ethnic minorities in Dien Bien province today, ibid, p.66-67; Hoang Thi Lan (editor): Religious and belief life in ethnic minority areas in Vietnam today, ibid, p.136-142.

(19) See: Le Nhan Dac: The issue of autonomous separation related to the religion of ethnic minority areas in Vietnam today, Journal of Religious Affairs, No. 6-2022, p.21.